The evolving landscape of adult education and training: trends, barriers, and next steps

25/03/2025

By I. Pragidis (Professor) and V. Kotsirou (PhD candidate) at the Democritus University of Thrace (Greece)

Lifelong learning has become a central theme in today’s rapidly changing world, where skill development is crucial for personal and professional development. Our recent analysis of the data provided by the Adult Education Survey (AES) and the Continuing Vocational Training Survey (CVTS) reveals the main trends and disparities that shape adult learning and the barriers individuals and enterprises face in accessing training opportunities.

Rising participation in education and training

AES data highlights an upward trend across all forms of learning for individuals aged 18-75, reflecting the growing emphasis on lifelong learning in many countries.

• Formal education and training participation increased from 6.2% in 2007 to 12.3% in 2022, indicating a rising number of adults pursuing structured programs, possibly due to the increasing demand for higher qualifications in the job market.
• Non-formal education and training grew consistently, rising from 31.6% in 2007 to 41.7% in 2022, driven by expanding professional development courses, online training platforms, and workplace learning initiatives.
• Informal learning saw the most significant growth, from 43.4% in 2007 to 64.6% in 2022. This sharp increase likely reflects the widespread availability of digital learning resources, such as online tutorials, podcasts, and self-directed learning tools, significantly accelerated by the shift to remote learning during the COVID-19 pandemic.

Among countries that participated in the survey, adult education and training participation varies significantly, shaped by education policies, cultural factors, and resource access. Sweden leads in formal (17.0%) and non-formal education (63.2%), reflecting its strong emphasis on continuous learning. Conversely, Serbia has the highest rate of informal learning (87.9%), indicating a preference for self-directed education. In contrast, Romania (10.0%) and Bosnia and Herzegovina (7.0%) report low participation in non-formal education, likely due to limited access to training programs. Greece has the lowest rate of informal learning (32.5%), suggesting cultural differences or fewer opportunities for self-directed learning.

Disparities in education and training access

While education and training participation have grown, notable disparities persist across different groups:

• Age differences: Younger adults engage more frequently in all forms of education, particularly informal learning, which exceeded 70% participation by 2022. Despite improving in non-formal and informal learning, senior learners still trail significantly behind younger cohorts.
• Income gaps: Higher-income individuals consistently report higher participation rates in education, particularly in informal and non-formal learning, where rates approach 70% and 50%, respectively. Lower-income individuals have seen steady progress but remain disadvantaged, possibly due to financial constraints.
• Employment status: While participation has increased across all employment categories, employed individuals lead in non-formal and informal training, likely due to workplace development initiatives. Those outside the labour force show higher participation in formal education, suggesting they use periods of unemployment for skill-building.

Challenges and barriers to participation

Despite the positive trends, several barriers hinder participation, affecting those who wish to participate but cannot and those who are unwilling to engage in training.

• Time constraints:Schedule conflicts emerge as the most significant barrier, with similar rates reported by both willing and unwilling respondents.
• Financial barriers: Costs are significant, particularly for lower-income individuals.
• Family responsibilities:  Significantly impact those unwilling to participate, especially women.
• Lack of employer or institutional support: Many employees face challenges accessing training because their workplace does not provide sufficient support.
• Health or age-related barriers: Older learners report higher rates of health-related constraints, further deterring participation.
• Perceived irrelevance: Many adults believe they do not need further education, demonstrating a need for awareness efforts.

Overall, the findings highlight the necessity of addressing financial, structural, and support-related factors to improve access to education and training for both groups. Targeted interventions are required for those currently unwilling to engage.

The role of enterprises in continuing vocational training (CVT)

Overcoming barriers to adult education demands not only policy interventions but also the active involvement of employers. As industries evolve, enterprises must equip their workforce with the necessary skills to stay competitive. While participation in adult education varies across demographic groups, enterprises can help bridge the gap by offering vocational training programs that align with their needs. The Continuing Vocational Training Survey (CVTS) highlights the extent of enterprise involvement in training and the barriers companies face in implementing education initiatives. In particular, CVTS reveals that:

• 57.6% of enterprises provide formal CVT courses. In comparison, 56.6% offer alternative training methods such as on-the-job training and workshops, suggesting a nearly equal preference for structured and alternative learning methods.
• Between 2010 and 2015, the provision of CVT courses increased from 56.1% to 61.8%, reflecting a period of expanded workforce development initiatives. However, in 2020, participation dropped to 54.7%, possibly due to disruptions caused by the COVID-19 pandemic, economic downturns, or shifts in training strategies. Similarly, other forms of CVT rose from 52.6% in 2010 to 60.2% in 2015 before settling at 56.8% in 2020.
• Large enterprises invest more in training than small and medium-sized businesses, often facing resource constraints.
• Sectoral disparities exist, with high-skill industries investing more in training than low-skill sectors.
• The most common barriers to CVT provision include lack of training, time constraints and financial barriers.

This underscores the need for companies to align training programs with industry needs and offer employee participation incentives.

Closing the skills gap: How personalized training recommendations can boost lifelong learning

Despite the growing involvement in lifelong learning, significant gaps in participation remain active. AES data reveals that lower-income individuals and older adults participate less in education and training, often due to financial constraints, time limitations or a perceived lack of relevance. These trends suggest that many individuals are either unaware of the available training opportunities or do not perceive them as beneficial to their career growth.

From the enterprise perspective, CVTS data shows that while many companies invest in vocational training, small and medium-sized enterprises struggle to keep pace due to financial limitations and a lack of structured training frameworks. Additionally, the decline in CVT provision suggests that COVID-19 shifted the workplace priorities away from the training efforts.

These findings highlight the need for awareness about training opportunities and the provision of personalized guidance to bridge the participation gaps. How can we help bridge this gap and encourage more people to use education and training programs?

A new initiative, outlined in the TRAILS project, seeks to address this challenge by designing a mechanism for encouraging unemployed individuals to enroll in vocational education and training (VET) programs. This will be achieved through providing nudges related to personalized and transparent skill-based insights and highlighting the benefits of upskilling combined with tailored training program recommendations as a key intervention.

This approach seeks to reduce misinformation and uncertainty about the value of upskilling by providing individuals with clear, data-driven insights into their current skills and matching them with relevant training opportunities. Empirical findings indicate that when individuals perceive training as relevant to their career prospects, they are more willing to participate.

This intervention aims to enhance guidance mechanisms and improve decision-making by ensuring individuals receive personalized learning pathways aligned with their professional needs.

Authors

Pragidis is an Associate Professor of Economics at the Democritus University of Thrace (DUTH).

He earned his B.A. in Economics from the University of Macedonia in 2001, followed by an MSc in Economics from the University of Warwick in 2003. He completed his Ph.D. in Economics at DUTH in 2009. Dr. Pragidis’s research focuses on fiscal and monetary policy. He is particularly interested in applying innovative methodologies, such as textual analysis, to measure economic uncertainty and its effects. He is also engaged in experimental economics, designing and conducting experiments to identify the causal impacts of individual decision-making and policy interventions. In addition to his academic research, Dr. Pragidis has played a leading role in several EU-funded projects to develop and implement forward-looking economic policy tools. His work has been published in numerous high-impact academic journals, including the Journal of Financial Stability, the International Journal of Financial Economics, and the International Review of Financial Analysis.

Vasiliki Kotsirou, PhD candidate in the Department of Economics at Democritus University of Thrace (DUTH).

Vasiliki Kotsirou earned a Bachelor’s degree in Economics in 2008 and a Master’s degree in Information Systems in 2011 from University of Macedonia. 

She is currently a PhD candidate in the Department of Economics at Democritus University of Thrace (DUTH), specializing in experimental design and behavioral insights in economics. Additionally, she works as a research assistant at DUTH, contributing to various projects in her field.